Treatment of Lung Cancer

Treatment of lung cancer is depends on the cell type, stage of disease, possibility for removing the tumor, and the patient's general medical condition. Options for treatment of are include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, or as well as combinations of these methods. For some patients, participation in a clinical trial is another option.

Lung Cancer Disease

Lung cancer is one of killer disease among both men and women. It claims more lives each year than colon, prostate, lymph and breast cancers combined. Like other cancers, The lung cancer is results from an abnormality in the body's basic unit of life, the cell. In the lung cancers cases, the uncontrolled cells reproduce rapidly grow into normal lung tissue because of malignant transformation and expansion of lung tissue.

Leukaemia Treatment

Leukaemia is a cancer of the white blood cells, which are produced by the bone marrow. There are two main types: lymphocytic leukaemia (arising from a type of white blood cell called a lymphocyte) and myeloid leukaemia (arising from an immature type of white blood cell called a myeloid stem cell).

The bone marrow produces two main types of white blood cells: granulocytes and lymphocytes. These work together to fight infection in the body. The fully developed white blood cells circulate around the body in the blood.Many patients with chronic leukemias are asymptomatic. Other leukemias present with splenomegaly, fever, weight loss, malaise, frequent infections, bleeding, thrombosis, or lymphadenopathy. Some chronic leukemias enter a blast phase where the clinical manifestations are similar to the acute leukemias.

Pulmonary Tuberculosis

X-ray, Tuberculosis is an infectious disease that causes inflammation, the formation of tubercules and other growths within tissue, and can cause tissue death.
These chest X-rays show advanced There are multiple light areas (opacities) of varying size that run together (coalesce).

PERITONEAL MESOTHELIOMA CANCER

Mesothelioma is a serious cancer found in the mesothelium (cancer of the mesothelium), a protective sac that covers most of the body’s internal organs including the lungs (called pleura mesothelioma), heart (called pericardium mesothelioma) and abdominal (called peritoneal mesothelioma) organs. Particle cells of the mesothelium become cancerous and grow out of control as mesothelioma cancer most cause by exposure to mineral Asbestos.

What is Alcohol Treatment?

Many medical problems that cause individuals to seek or require are related to drug or alcohol abuse. When screening programs identify medical patients who may have alcohol or drug problems, the concern shown by healthcare providers, even during brief encounters or interventions, can provide patients with significant motivation for engaging in the assessment and treatment process.

Medical Malpractice

What is Medical Malpractice? Medical Malpractice is a term used for a specific type of negligence on the medical profession. It refers to the negligence of a specially trained or educated person in the performance of his or her job.

Medical malpractice (medical mistake or medical error also called medical negligence) is an act or omission of the best possible medical treatment available by a health care professional in the care of an individual which causes injury or harm to the patient.

Pneumococcal's Vaccine (Prevnar)

Pneumococcal disease are infections caused by the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae, which also known as pneumococcus. The most common types of infections caused by this bacteria are include middle ear infections, pneumonia, blood stream infections (bacteremia), sinus infections, and meningitis. Pneumococcal diseases is a very serious illness in young children which can cause brain damage. In rare cases, Pneumococcal diseases can cause of death.

Breast Cancer Disease

Breast cancer is a malignant tumor that has developed from cells of the breast. Breast cancer is fairly common. In men, breast cancer is very rare. Breast cancer is not exclusively a disease of women, however. Breast cancer is the most lethal form of cancer for women in the world. for women between the ages of 35 and 55. In Arizona and Canada, breast cancer is the leading form of cancer among women. The highest recorded incidence of male breast cancer is in parts of Brazil, Colombia, Hungary, and Singapore, though it is not clear why. The Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer (other than skin cancer) in women.

Drugs as Medicine to Treatment of Disease

Antihistamines: Antihistamines are used for symptomatic relief from allergic rhinitis (hay fever) including runny nose, sneezing, itching of the nose or throat, and itchy and watery eyes. The anticholinergic effects of antihistamines may cause a thickening of bronchial secretions; therefore, these agents may be counterproductive in respiratory conditions characterized by congestion. Antihistamines may cause drowsiness.

Xanthines: Xanthines, primarily theophylline, relieve bronchial spasm by direct action on the bronchial smooth muscle in bronchospastic conditions such as asthma and chronic bronchitis. Some xanthine-containing combination products are available over-the-counter, but asthmatic patients should use them only under physician supervision.

Sympathomimetics: Sympathomimetics are used for their vasoconstrictor/decongestant or bronchodilator effects.

Decongestants: Decongestants are used for temporary relief of nasal congestion due to colds or allergy. Given orally, they are less effective than topical nasal decongestants and have a potential for systemic side effects. Frequent or prolonged topical use may lead to local irritation and rebound congestion.

Bronchodilators: Ephedrine is common in these combinations; however, it stimulates cardiac (b1) receptors. Bronchodilation is weaker than with the catecholamines: a-adrenergic effects may decrease congestion of mucous membranes. Other b-active agents are effective bronchodilators, but pseudoephedrine is not.

Analgesics: Analgesics (eg, acetaminophen, aspirin, ibuprofen, sodium salicylate) are frequently included for symptoms of headache, fever, muscle aches, and pain.

Anticholinergics: Anticholinergics are included for their drying effects on mucous secretions. This action may be beneficial in acute rhinorrhea; however, drying of respiratory secretions may lead to obstruction. Traditionally, anticholinergics have been avoided in patients with asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD); however, some patients respond well to these agents. Caution is still advised in this group. An anticholinergic for oral inhalation is available as a bronchodilator for maintenance of bronchospasm associated with COPD, including chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

Papaverine HCl: Papaverine HCl relaxes the smooth muscle of the bronchial tree and tractus duodenum, this drug mostly use for the diarrhea patients.

Barbiturates: Barbiturates are included for their sedative effects as “correctives” in combination with xanthines or sympathomimetics, which may cause CNS stimulation. The sedative efficacy of low doses (eg, 8 mg phenobarbital) is questionable.

Caffeine: Caffeine is included in some combinations for CNS stimulation to counteract antihistamine depression and to enhance concomitant analgesics.

Barbiturates, prochlorperazine, hydroxyzine, meprobamate, chlordiazepoxide: These components are used as sedatives and antianxiety agents.

Ergotamine tartrate: Ergotamine tartrate provides inhibition of the sympathetic nervous system.

Kaolin: Kaolin is used for its adsorbent properties.

Narcotic analgesics: Codeine, hydrocodone bitartrate, dihydrocodeine bitartrate, opium, oxycodone HCl, oxycodone terephthalate, meperidine HCl, propoxyphene HCl, propoxyphene napsylate.

Nonnarcotic analgesics: Acetaminophen, salicylates, salicylamide. Caffeine, a traditional component of many analgesic formulations, may be beneficial to certain vascular headaches.

Magnesium-aluminum hydroxides and calcium carbonate: Magnesium-aluminum hydroxides and calcium carbonate are used as buffers.

Barbiturates, acetylcarbromal, carbromal, and bromisovalum: Barbiturates, acetylcarbromal, carbromal, and bromisovalum are used for their sedative effects.

Promethazine HCl: Promethazine HCl (a phenothiazine derivative with antihistamine properties) is used for its sedative effect.

Belladonna alkaloids: Belladonna alkaloids are used as an antispasmodic.

Barbiturates, meprobamate, and antihistamines: Barbiturates, meprobamate, and antihistamines are used for their sedative effects.

Antacids: Antacids are used to minimize gastric upset from salicylates.

Caffeine: Caffeine, a traditional component of many analgesic formulations, may be beneficial in treating certain vascular headaches.

Belladonna: Belladonna alkaloids are used as antispasmodics, the which popular for the colic abdominal patients.

Pamabrom: Pamabrom is used as a diuretic.

Cinnamedrine: Cinnamedrine, a sympathomimetic amine claimed to have a relaxant effect in the uterus, is used in products for premenstrual syndrome. Its real value has not been established.

Aminobenzoate: Aminobenzoate retards the conjugation of salicylic acid and prolongs the action of salicylates.

Loss, Grief and End-of-Life Care

People are complex, biopsychosocial beings. When they become ill, undergo diagnosis for altered health states, experience a loss, or progress into the end stage of life, their responses are the result of the complex interaction of biopsychosocial changes that occur. Because we live in a culture marked by dramatically different responses to the experiences of loss and grief, nurses often feel inadequate in planning interventions to facilitate grief management and the healing process.

Rheumatic Heart Disease

Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is a condition in which permanent damage to heart valves is caused by rheumatic fever. Rheumatic fever begins with a strep throat from streptococcal (STREP'to-KOK'al) infection. As many as 39% of patients with acute rheumatic fever may develop varying degrees of pancarditis with associated valve insufficiency, heart failure, pericarditis, and even death.

With chronic rheumatic heart disease, patients develop valve stenosis with varying degrees of regurgitation, atrial dilation, arrhythmias, and ventricular dysfunction. Chronic rheumatic heart disease remains the leading cause of mitral valve stenosis and valve replacement in adults in many countries including in Indonesia.

Management of Acute Hypersensitivity Reactions

Type I Hypersensitivity reactions are immunologic responses to a foreign antigen to which a patient has been previously sensitized (immediate hypersensitivity or anaphylaxis). Anaphylactoid reactions are not immunologically mediated; however, symptoms and treatment are similar.

Process of Acute Hypersensitivity Reactions

Signs and symptoms of Acute Hypersensitivity Reactions :

External Radiation Therapy

All cancer patients, About 60% are treated with some form of external radiation therapy (radiotherapy). This treatment delivers X-rays or gamma-rays directly to the cancer place. Radiotherapy effects are local because only the area being treated experiences direct effects.

Radiation doses are based on the type, stage, and location of the tumor as well as on the patient's size, condition and overall treatment goals. Radiation doses are given in increments, usually three to five times a week, until the total dose is reached. The goals of radiation therapy include cure, in which the cancer is completely destroyed and not expected to recur; control, in which the cancer doesn't progress or regress but is expected to progress at some later time; or palliation, in which radiation is given to relieve symptoms caused by the cancer (such as bone pain, bleeding, and headache).

External beam radiation therapy is delivered by machines that aim a concentrated beam of high-energy particles (photons and gamma rays) at the target site. There are two types of radiotherapy machines; units containing cobalt or cesium as radioactive sources for gamma rays, and linear accelerators that use electricity to produce X-rays.

Linear accelerators produce high energy with great penetrating ability. Some (known as orthovoltage machines) produce less powerful electron beams that may be used for superficial tumors.

Radiation therapy may be augmented by chemotherapy, brachytherapy (radiation implant therapy), or surgery, as needed.

Equipment for Radiotherapy Procedure

Radiation therapy machine need for film badge or pocket dosimeter.

Implementation of Radiotherapy Procedure

1. Explain the treatment to the patient and his family.
Review the treatment goals, and discuss the range of potential adverse effects as well as interventions to minimize them. Also discuss possible long-term complications and treatment issues. Educate the patient and his family about local cancer services.

2. Make sure the radiation oncology department has obtained informed consent.

3. Review the patient's clinical record for recent laboratory and imaging results, and alert the radiation oncology staff to any abnormalities or other pertinent results (such as myelosuppression, paraneoplastic syndromes, oncologic emergencies, and tumor progression).

4. Transport the patient to the radiation oncology department.

5. The patient begins by undergoing simulation (treatment planning), in which the target area is mapped out on his body using a machine similar to the radiation therapy machine. Then the target area is tattooed or marked in ink on his body to ensure accurate treatments.

6. The physician and radiation oncologist determine the duration and frequency of treatments, depending on the patient's body size, size of portal, extent and location of cancer, and treatment goals.

7. The patient is positioned on the treatment table beneath the machine. Treatments last from a few seconds to a few minutes. Reassure the patient that he won't feel anything and won't be radioactive. After treatment is complete, the patient may return home or to his room.

Special considerations

1. Explain to the patient that the full benefit of radiation treatments may not occur until several weeks or months after treatments begin. Instruct him to report long-term adverse effects.

2. Emphasize the importance of keeping follow-up appointments with the physician.

3. Refer the patient to a support group, such as a local chapter of the American Cancer Society.

Home care after Radiotherapy done

Instruct the patient and his family about proper skin care and management of possible adverse effects.

Complications of Radiotherapy

Adverse effects arise gradually and diminish gradually after treatments. They may be acute, subacute (accumulating as treatment progresses), chronic (following treatment), or long-term (arising months to years after treatment). Adverse effects are localized to the area of treatment, and their severity depends on the total radiation dose, underlying organ sensitivity, and the patient's overall condition.

Common acute and subacute adverse effects can include altered skin integrity, altered GI and genitourinary function, altered fertility and sexual function, altered bone marrow production, fatigue, and alopecia.

Chronic and long-term complications or adverse effects may include radiation pneumonitis, neuropathy, skin and muscle atrophy, telangiectasia, fistulas, altered endocrine function, and secondary cancers.

Other complications of treatment include headache, alopecia, xerostomia, dysphagia, stomatitis, altered skin integrity (wet or dry desquamation), nausea, vomiting, heartburn, diarrhea, cystitis, and fatigue.

Documentation of Radiotherapy Procedure

Record radiation precautions taken during treatment; interventions used and their effectiveness; grading of adverse effects; teaching given to the patient and his family and their responses to it; the patient's tolerance of isolation procedures and the family's compliance with procedures; discharge plans and teaching; and referrals to local cancer services, if any.

What is Spina bifida?

Spina bifida is a birth defect in central nervous system. It occurs as a result from neural tube failure to close during embryonic development. The term spina bifida comes from Latin and literally means "split" or "open" spine.

Spina bifida commonly occurs at the end of the first month of pregnancy when the two sides of the embryo's spine fail to join together, leaving an open area. In some cases, the spinal cord or other membranes may push through this opening in the back. The condition usually is detected before a baby is born and treated right away.

Epistaxis (Nosebleeds)

Epistaxis is the relatively common occurrence of bleeding (hemorrhage) from the nose, usually noticed when the blood drains out through the nostrils.

A. Type of Epistaxis

There are two types ; Anterior from the nasal septum (Kiesselbach’s plexus) as most common cases. Anterior bleeding may also originate anterior to the inferior turbinate. Posterior from the nasal septum as less common cases. Posterior hemorrhage originates from branches of the sphenopalatine artery in the posterior nasal cavity or nasopharynx.